The land of Sind has a hoary past with some of the most striking
episodes in history having occurred in its bosom. It has given a
slightly different variation of its name to our neighbouring country and
to the religious majority of its inhabitants. Both the words India and
Hindu are derived from Sindhu, which, in Persian became Hind and Hindu
(the letter H substituted for S) and in Greek and Roman, Ind (the letter
S of Sind having being dropped). The meaning of the word Sindhu is
water, referring to the great river. There is an old belief among
Muslims that four rivers had sprung from Heaven: Neel (Nile), Furat
(Euphrates), Jehoon (Juxartes) and Sehoon (Sind).
The Aryans called the whole of Pakistan, Kashmir and East Afghanistan
as Sapta Sindhu — the land of seven rivers. In Rigveda it is referred
to as Sapta Sindhva, while India is named Bharat Varsa (the land of the
sons of Bharat, a legendary Emperor).1 Thus, even for the Aryans there
were two countries in this sub-continent: Sapta Sindhva and Bharat
Varsa. The Assyrians in the 7th century B.C. knew the north-western part
of the sub-continent as Sinda. However, when India began to be called
Hind by Persians and Arabs, and Ind by Greeks and Romans, the local
people continued to call their land, Sind. This distinction continued
for centuries. Arab geographers, historians and travellers also called
the entire area from the Arabian Sea to the range of Kashmir mountains
Sind.3 As such, there were always two countries in the sub-continent —
Sind and Hind. The present Pakistan (including Kashmir and a major
portion of Afghanistan) constituting one country, and India, another.
As regards the composition of the population of Sind Province (before
Partition) the two main stocks that inhabit Sind are related to, and
common, one with the Punjab and another with Baluchistan. The majority
stock is that of Rajputs and Jats who are the descendants of Sakas,
Kushans and Huns who also constitute the majority of the population the
Punjab. During Kalhora rule a number of Jat tribes such as the Sials,
Joyas and Khawars came from the Punjab and settled in Sind. They are
called Sirai i.e., men from the north and speak Siraiki language.
Two main Rajput tribes of Sind are: the Samma, a branch of the Yadav
Rajputs who inhabit the eastern and lower Sind and Bahawalpur; and the
Sumra who, according to the 1907 edition of the Gazetteer are a branch
of the Parwar Rajputs. Among others are the Bhuttos, Bhattis, Lakha,
Sahetas, Lohanas, Mohano, Dahars, Indhar, Chachar, Dhareja, Rathors,
Dakhan, Langah etc.4 The Mohano tribe is spread over Makran, Sind and
southern Punjab. They are also identified with the ‘Mallah’ of the
Punjab and both have in common a sub-section called Manjari. All these,
old Sindhi tribes are known under the common nomenclature of Sammat.
The smaller stock is that of Baluchi tribes setlled in various parts
of Sind mostly during the last five hundred years or so Since they were
martial people and ruled over Sind for some time before the arrival of
the British, they acquired vast lands in the province with the result
that a large number of present-day Sindhi landlords are of Baluch
origin. According to the 1941 census, which was the last one held before
Partition Baluchis formed 23% of the total Muslim population of Sind.
Among the Baluchi tribes inhabiting Sind are the Rind, Dombki, Jakhrani,
Leghari, Lashari, Chandio, Karmati, Korai, Jatoi, Burdi, Khosa, Jamali,
Umrani, Bugti, Marri, Mazari, Talpur, Brohi, Nizamani, Buledhi,
Karrani, Bozdar, Nukharni, Magsi etc. These tribes are spread over
Baluchistan, Sind and the south-western districts of the Punjab.
Yet a third stock of Sindhi population comprises of the descendants
of Muslim conquerors, administrators and missionaries who were mostly
Arabs, Persians, Turks or Mughals. They are a small minority settled in
cities and towns but so deeply absorbed and blended with the other
components of the population that all the three together have evolved a
distinct language and culture. Of this third element Arabs have
contributed most to the development of Sindhi language and literature
and to the advancement of its intellectual and cultural activities.
Since the early history of Sind is intimately related to the history
of the Punjab and other provinces of Pakistan it need not be dealt with
at length. Only a brief account shall be attempted here, without
mentioning the Indus Valley civilization which will be discussed some
other time.
Dawn of history reveals an Aryan dynasty in power in Sind. In the
Mahabharata (12th or 13th century B.C.) Jayadrath, King of Sind appears
as a partisan of Panduas against their cousins Kauruas. Next historical
mention of Sind is found about 575 B.C. during the time of Achaemenian
dynasty. The Iranian General, Skylax, explored Indus in a flotilla
equipped near Peshawar, conquered the Indus Valley and annexed it to the
Empire of Darius the Great. The conquered province of the Punjab and
Sind was considered the richest and the most populous satrapy of the
Empire and was required to pay the enormous tribute of fully a million
sterling. Next historical record is that of Alexander’s invasion in 326
B.C. A tribe called Mausikanos whose capital is usually identified with
Alor (Rohri) is said to have submitted. According to Greek historians
the territories of this chief were the most flourishing of all that the
Greeks had seen. A few centuries later Roman historians have mentioned
Sind as a rich country. Patala in lower Sind was known to them as an
emporium of trade.
Alexandrian period was followed by that of the Mauryas (3rd century
BC) whose fall brought in Graeco-Bactrians (2nd century B.C.). They
ruled over the whole of Pakistan with their capital at Taxila. Their
coins are still found in the old towns of Sind. The Graeco-Bactrian
period was followed by that of the Scythian (Saka) invasion in the first
century BC. “They settled here in such large numbers that Sind became
known as Indo-Scythia and to this day a large proportion of the
population is certainly Scythian.”5 Two Scythian tribes, the Jats and
Meds, are mentioned as having invaded the Punjab and Sind. Some of the
present day Mohanas of Sind and Baluchistan call themselves Med. “In 60
AD Sind was occupied by Scythians, ruled perhaps from far away Taxila.”6'' The first century A.D. witnessed the arrival of the Kushans who,
along with the Scythians (Sakas) and later Parthians, ruled over
Afghanistan and Pakistan for about four centuries from Peshawar. The
next great holocaust occurred in the 5th century A.D. with the Hun
invasion which surpassed all previous records in its intensity and
vastness. Their invasion ushered in the Rajput era which lasted till the
7th century A.D. in Sind (80 years before the arrival of Mohd. Bin
Qasim); till the end of 10th century AD in the Punjab and NWFP (upto the
arrival of Mahmud Ghaznavi) and till the end of 12th century in
northern India when Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj in 1192 A.D.
Before lmaduddin Mohammad Bin Qasim’s arrival here, Rajputs were the
ruling race in Sind and in the rest of northern India. The last Rajput
ruler of Sind was Raja Sahasi II whose dominions extended up to Kashmir.
He was a contemporary of Prophet Mohammad and professed Buddhism as did
his father Siharus. The rule of Raja Sahasi II ended in 632 A.D. the
year Prophet Mohammad died. He was succeeded by his Brahmin chamberlain,
Chach, who had become a favourite of Sahasi’s wife. Chach ruled over
Sind for about 68 years from 632-700 A.D. His son Dahir was the ruler
when Mohammad Bin Qasim arrived here in 711 A.D.
The line of rulership before Islam runs thus: Siharus, Sahasi II,
Chach, Dahir. The first two were Buddhist Rajputs and the last two Hindu
Brahmins. The new Brahmin rulers were extremely hostile towards the
Buddhists who were in substantial numbers in Sind at that time and they
had ruthlessly suppressed the Jats and Meds who formed the bulk of the
peasantry. Humiliating conditions were imposed on the Jats depriving
them of many civil rights. “When Chach, the Brahmim chamberlain who
usurped the throne of Rajput King Sahasi II went to Brahmanabad, he
enjoined upon the Jats and Lohanas not to carry swords, avoid velvet or
silken cloth, ride horses without saddles and walk about bare-headed and
bare-footed.”7 It was because of this background that Mohammad Bin
Qasim received cooperation from the Buddhists as well as the Jats and
Meds during his campaign in Sind. Among others who did not oppose
Mohammad Bin Qasim’s advance and made peace with him was the Bhutto
tribe.8 In fact he was hailed as deliverer by several sections of local
population. The humble position of the Buddhists in Sind seeking support
from outside can be read in the Chach Nama.
“Mohammad Bin Qasim’s work was facilitated by the treachery of
certain Buddhist priests and renegade chiefs who deserted their
sovereign and joined the invader. With the assistance of some of these
traitors, Mohammad crossed the vast sheet of water separating his army
from that of Dahir and gave battle to the ruler near Raor (712 A.D.).
Dahir was defeated and killed.”9 THE JATS OF SIND Before commencing a review of the Muslim period of Sind’s history, we
shall speak briefly of the Jats of Sind (Pakistan) who were known all
over Iran and the Middle East for their sturdy constitution and
industrious nature. They have a colourful history and an adventurous
past.
The author of Mujmaul Tawarikh has quoted an extinct Sanskrit work
according to which the original inhabitants of Sind were Jats and Meds.
Early Arab writers on Sind also say that Jats and Meds were important
tribes in their time. Ibn Khurdabah mentions ‘zutts’ as guarding the
route between Kirman and Mansura while Ibn Haukal writes: “Between
Mansura and Makran the waters from the Mehran form lakes and the
inhabitants of the country are the south Asian races called Zutt. The
Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang who visited this region in the 7th century
A.D. also mentioned Jats.
“The Jats claim to be included in the 36 royal Rajput tribes. Some of
them state that their forefathers came from Ghazni. But it is generally
accepted that they are the descendants of the ancient Getae, or
Jeutchi, from Scythia. Some authorities consider that they entered the
sub-continent some time in 1500 BC and are the same as the Jattikas
mentioned in the Mahabharata, and also identical with the Jatti of Pliny
and Ptolemy. Their original home was on the Oxus.”10 According to the
Encyclopaedia of Islam, the Jats of the lower Indus comprise both Jats
and Rajputs, and the same rule applies to Las-Bela where descendants of
former ruling races like the Sumra and the Samma of Sind and the Langah
of Multan are found. At the time of the first appearance of the Arabs
they found the whole of Makran in possession of Jats (Zutts).
According to a ‘Hadis’, Hazrat Abdulla Bin Masood, a companion
Prophet saw some strangers with the Prophet and said that their features
and physique were like those of Jats.11 This means that Jats we in
Arabia even during the Prophet’s time. Hazrat Imam Bukhari (d. 875 A.D. –
256 A.H.) writing about the period of the Companions in his book “Al
adab al Mufarrad” has stated that once when Hazrat Aisha (Prophet’s
wife) fell ill, her nephews brought a Jat doctor for her treatment. We
hear of them next when the Arab armies clashed with the Persian forces
which comprised of Jat soldiers as well. The Persian Command Hurmuz used
Jat soldiers against Khalid Bin Walid in the battle of ’salasal’ of 634
A.D. (12 hijri). This vvas the first time that Jats were captured by
the Arabs. They put forward certain conditions for joining the Arab
armies which were accepted, and on embracing Islam they were associated
with different Arab tribes.12 This event proves that the first group of
Pakistanis to accept Islam were Jats who did it as early as 12 hijri
(634 A.D.) in the time of Hazrat Omar.
The Persian King Yazdjard had also sought the help of the Sind ruler
who sent Jat soldiers and elephants which were used against the Arabs in
the battle of Qadisia.
According to Tibri, Hazrat Ali had employed Jats to guard Basra
treasury during the battle of Jamal. “Jats were the guards of the Baitul
Maal at al-Basra during the time of Hazrat Osman and Hazrat Ali.”13
Amir Muawiya had settled them on the Syrian border to fight against the
Romans. It is said that 4,000 Jats of Sind joined Mohammad Bin Qasim’s
army and fought against Raja Dahir. Sindhi Jats henceforth began to be
regularly recruited in the Muslim armies.
“Some of the Zutt deserters from the Persian army were transplanted
in 670 A.D. by Caliph Muawiya from Basrah to Antioch. When the Arabs
conquered Sind, another batch of Zutts whom the conquerors had uprooted
from their native pastures seem to have been sent to Syria by Hajjaj
(691-713 A.D.) and eventually sent on by the Caliph Walid 1(707-15 AD)
to join the previous batch of Zutt deportees at Antioch whence some,
again, were sent on by the Caliph Yazid II (720-24 A.D.) to Massisah in
Cicilia…. But the bulk of Hajjaj’s deportees from Sind seem to have
been settled in Iraq. In the reign of Abbasid Caliph Mansur (813-33
A.D.) they broke into a rebellion which it took him and his successor
Mutasim 833-42 AD), the best part of 20 years to quell….. Whether there
had or had not been a voluntary immigration as well as a compulsory
deportation of Zutt to Iraq from Sind, we may take it that in the course
of the first two centuries of Arab rule, manpower from western
subcontinent (i.e., Pakistan) had it in one way or another been pouring
into a south-western Asia that, on the eve of the Arab conquest, had
been depopulated by the two last and most devastating of the
Romano-Persian wars.”14 This statement of Tonybee is revealing in that it shows the close
relations Pakistan had with the Middle East. Sindhis began to settle in
areas as far away as Iraq and Syria which were depopulated by wars
between the Persians and the Romans.
The origin of European gypsies is also traced to Sindhi Jats.
Harun-ur-Rashid had recruited Jats to reinforce Cilician fortress. When
the Romans descended on Ayn Zarbah in 855 A.D. they carried off into
East Roman territory the Jats together with their women, children and
buffaloes. This detachment of the Jats was the advance guard of the
gypsies of Europe.15 They continued to pour into Europe in small batches
at various stages subsequently.
THE ARAB PERIOD
Turning to the history of Sind, it may be divided into seven periods:
(1) Pre-Muslim; (2) Arab Rule; (3) Middle Ages from Mahmud Ghaznavi to
the establishment of Mughal Rule; (4) Mughal Period; (5) Kalhora period;
(6) The Talpur Period; and (7) The British Period. We shall deal with
briefly discussing only certain salient features of each period.
We have already spoken of the Indus Valley Civilization and the
pre-historic period in an earlier chapter. Between the fall of the
Mauryan Empire and the arrival of the Arabs i.e., roughly 200 B.C. to
700 A.D., a span of 900 years, Sind and other parts of Pakistan
experienced wave after wave of hordes from Central Asia settling down in
these regions. The Bactrians, Sakas, Kushans, the Pahlavas and the Huns
etc., came, conquered and settled here. From these stocks, mingled with
indigenous blood, ultimately emerged the new Kshatrya ruling class of
Hindus later called Rajputs and the peasant class of Jats and Gujjars.
16 The most outstanding aspect of this pre-Muslim period is that Sind
was intimately connected with the rest of Pakistan and not with India.
It had either independent kingdoms or kingdoms in common with Pakistan.
Several reasons are ascribed to the Arab desire to conquer Makran 17
and Sind. Firstly, Sindhi Rajas had helped the Persians in their wars
against the Arabs. Sindhi forces participated in the battles of
Nehawand, ‘Salasal’, Qadisia and Makran and fought against the Arabs.
Secondly, when after the conquest of Persia by the Arabs some of their
rebel chiefs began to seek refuge in Sind, its Raja refused to surrender
them to the Caliphs inspite of repeated requests. Thirdly, since Arab
traders were being constantly harassed by pirates from the Makran and
Sind coasts, a foot-hold in these areas considered necessary to
safeguard Arab maritime interests.
The first naval expedition undertaken by the Arabs in this ocean was
during Hazrat Omar’s caliphate in 636 A.D. – 15 A.H. under the command
of Osman bin Abi’Aas, the Governor of Bahrain and Oman. He attacked
Thana, a port near modern Bombay. A little later he sent another naval
expedition to Debal in Sind under the command of his brother Mughira.
Raja Chach was the ruler of Sind at that time and his kingdom was well
defended. Mughira was defeated by the Raja’s forces and killed in
action.
During Hazrat Omar’s caliphate the Governor of Iraq also sent an
expedition by land to Makran under the command of Rabi Bin Ziad Haris.
Though Makran was conquered but the victory was short-lived, as the
locals recaptured the country. Makran was, however, permanently
conquered during the last days of Hazrat Omar’s caliphate in 642 AD – 43
AH. under the command of Hakam Taglabi. Hazrat Osman, the third Caliph
had sent Hakim bin Jabala to Sind in 650 A.D. to collect information.
Before him Sahar-al-Abdi had visited Sind for the same purpose in 643
A.D. during Hazrat Omar’s last days.18 The next Arab general to enter
Pakistan by land was Muhlib bin Sufra who came through the Khyber Pass
in 665 A.D. -65 A.H.
The real story, however, begins with Hajjaj Bin Yusuf who was
Governor of Iraq. The story of Arab merchants returning from Ceylon to
Basra having been looted by Sindhi pirates is well-known. It is related
that some of the women who were being carried away by the pirates
implored Hajjaj to rescue them.
Hajjaj took serious notice of the incident and wrote to Dahir, the
ruler of Sind, for the release of captives as well as the goods which
were being sent to the caliphate as presents by the ruler of Ceylon. Not
receiving a favourable reply, Hajjaj, with the permission of Caliph
Walid, sent a force to Debal under the command of Abdulla bin Nabhan.
This force was annihilated by Dahir’s army and its commander killed in
battle. (According to Dr. Daud Pota the tomb of Abdullah Shah at Clifton
in Karachi is of this General, Abdulla bin Nabhan).l9 Again, Hajjaj
sent a bigger expedition to Debal, to oppose which Dahir sent his son
Jaisia with a fairly large contingent. For the second time Arabs were
defeated and their commander Badil bin Tuhfa killed in action at Debal.
(According to the British historian Eliot, Karachi and the island of
Manora constituted the city of Debal).
Hajjaj was infuriated and perturbed at the developments. Having
realised that the ruler of Sind was a powerful monarch, he started
making large-scale preparations and took personal interest in the matter
since the issue had now become one of prestige. The selection of a
commander for this expeditionary force had also to be made with due care
keeping in view all the aspects of the problem. Hajjaj’s choice fell on
the young 20 year old (according to some 17) Mohammad Bin Qasim. The
army and its Commander were given rigorous training for over one year in
the desert of southern Iran which had similar climatic conditions to
those of Sind. Through intelligence reports, all the strong and weak
points of the enemy and details of their weapons and defences were
collected, studied, and the Arab army equipped accordingly. Hajjaj bin
Yusuf went through through the minutest details and after thorough study
of the maps of Sind, guided Mohammad Bin Qasim on the strategy to be
followed. Not content with this, Hajjaj made arrangements to convey his
messages and orders to Mohammad Bin Qasim from Basra to any point in
Sind within a week. Orders were that Mohammad Bin Qasim should not
attack any city or fort or engage his forces in any large-scale battle
with the enemy without getting orders from Basra. Even instructions
concerning the day and time of attack and weapons to be used in a
particular place or battle were sent by Hajjaj.
This time Arab armies triumphed and the triumph proved permanent. I
shall not go into details which are available in all histories and
mention only a few points which have not been high-lighted.
MOHAMMAD BIN QASIM’S RULE
As mentioned elsewhere, Sind had a large Buddhist population at this
time but the ruler, Dahir, was a Brahmin. It is said that the Buddhists
been receiving constant information from their co-religionists in
Afghanistan and Turkistan about the extremely liberal treatment meted
out to them by the Arab conquerors of those regions. In view of these
reports, the Buddhist population of Sind decided to extend full
cooperation to Mohammad Bin Qasim and even acclaimed him as liberator
from Brahmin tyranny. Several principalities in Sind were ruled by
Buddhist Rajas. The Buddhist ruler of Nerun (Hyderabad) had secret
correspondence with Mohammad Bin Qasim. Similarly, Bajhra and Kaka
Kolak, Buddhist Rajas of Sewastan, allied themselves with Mohammad Bin
Qasim.20 On similar grounds, Jats also joined the Arabs against Dahir.
Secondly, it is generally believed that Mohammad Bin Qasim conquered
areas only up to Multan. No, he conquered almost the entire Pakistan
which then formed part of the Kingdom of Sind. According to Chach Nama,
after conquering Aror (near Rohri), Mohammad Bin Qasim advanced towards
Bhatia, an old fort on Beas which was under the command of Chach’s
nephew. After conquering Bhatia the Arabs laid siege to Iskandla on
river Ravi and took it. Chach Nama further states that Mohammad Bin
Qasim proceeded to the boundary of Kashmir called Panj Mahiyat, at the
upper course of Jhelum just after it debouches into the plains.21 “With a
force of 6,000 Mohainmad Bin Qasim, a youth of 20, conquered and
reorganised the whole of the country from the mouth of Indus to the
borders of Kashmir, a distance of 800 miles in three years 712-15 A.D.22
“Waihind (neat Attock) which was one of the oldest cities of the
sub-continent was included in the kingdom of Sind.”23 “Mohammad Bin
Qasim made Multan the base for further inroads and garrisoned
Brahmanpur, on the Jhelum, the modern Shorkot, Ajtabad and Karor; and
afterwards with 50,000 men marched via Dipalpur to the foot of the
Himalayas near Jelhum.”24 It is recognised by all historians that Mohammad Bin Qasim’s rule was
most liberal and his treatment of non-Muslims extremely just and fair.
He not only appointed Hindus to senior administrative posts but left
small Hindu principalities undisturbed. Brahmins had become so loyal to
him that they used to go from village to village and urge people to
support the Arab regime. When Mohammad Bin Qasim was recalled from Sind
by the Caliph in very unhappy circumstances, the Hindus and Buddhist of
Sind wept over his departure; and when he died they erected a statue in
his memory and worshipped it for a long time. Mohammad Bin Qasim’s two
sons had a distinguished career. Arnroo became Governor of Sind and
Qasim was Governor of Basra for fifteen years.25 But the early Arab period is not one of peace and tranquility. With
the recall of Mohammad Bin Qasim the province returned to chaos and
confusion. After a few years of anarchy governor Junaid restored
normalcy. A short while later, due to bad administration, chaos
prevailed again. Conditions were so critical that the next governor,
Hakam bin Awanah established a new city called ‘Mahfooza’ (place of
safety) in 732 A.D. – 113 A.H. where all the Muslims collected for
safety. Later on, after restoring order and reorganising most of the
Province, Hakam’s general Amroo (the son of Mohammad Bin Qasim) built
another city ‘Mansoora’ (victory) near Shahdadpur in 737 A.D. – 119 AH.
which became the capital of the Arab kingdom. Because of these unsettled
conditions Sind had to be conquered again and again.
“In Sind the recall of Mohammad Bin Qasim was followed by a Hindu
reaction which almost wiped out the results of the first victories. When
Hakam bin Awanah was appointed Governor of Sind, he found that the
natives had rebelled and apostasized. He built two cities, Mahfuzah and
Mansurah in the north and south of Sind, to provide places of security
for Muslims.” 26 From the departure of Mohammad Bin Qasim in 715 A.D. to the fall of
the Umayyad caliphate in 750 A.D., a period of 35 years, Sind had nine
governors. They were Habib Bin Mohlab, Amro Bin Muslim Bahili, Bilal Bin
Ahwaz, Junaid Bin Abdur Rehman Marri, Tamim Bin Zaid Atbi, Hakam Bin
Awanah Qalbi, Amroo Bin Mohainmad Bin Qasim, Yazid Bin Arrar and Mansur
Bin Jamhur Qalbi. During this period “Governor Junaid again conquered
all the territory up to Beas and Ravi in the north-east, Kashmir in the
north, Arabian ocean in the south, Malwa in the south-east and Makran in
the west.”27 Umayyad caliphate was replaced by that of the Abbasids in 750 AD,
Sind became part of the Abbasid dominions. It remained under Baghdad’s
control during the Abbasid Caliphs Saffa, Mansoor, Hadi, Haroon, Mamoon,
Mutasim, Wasiq and Mutawakkil. In the reign of the last mentioned
Caliph, the Governor of Sind, Umar Hibari, became practically
independent owing nominal allegience to the Caliph. Earlier, during the
caliphate of Mamoon-ur-Rashid, Sind Governor Bashar Ibn-e-Dawood had
revolted and withheld the payment of revenues, but the revolt was
quelled judiciously. It may be of interest to note that the postal and
intelligence services of Sind were directly controlled by the Caliphs.
The man who governed Sind (then covering major portion of present day
Pakistan) for the longest period was Dawood bin Yazid bin Hatim who
died in 821 A.D. Two members of the famous Baramaka family of Abbasid
Prime Ministers ruled over Sind as Governors during this period. One was
Musa Barmakh and the other his son Omar Barmakh. The Barmakh family
were said to be originally Kashmiri Buddhists who had migrated to Balkh
(now in northern Afghanistan) and after accepting Islam, went to Baghdad
where several members of the family had distinguished career. Two of
them, Yahya and Jafar, became Prime Ministers of Haroon-ur-Rashid. (The
word Barmakh is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘par mukh’ meaning
sardar).
During the 105 years of Abbasid period when Sind formed part of their
dominions (750-855 A.D.) thirty-one Governors were appointed. The
Hibari dynasty which had become independent lasted from 855 A.D. to 1010
A.D. i.e., till the annexation of Sind by Mahmud Ghaznavi. It was the
last Arab government. One of its rulers Abdulla bin Omar Hibari (d. 893
AD) ruled for about 30 years and made great contribution to the cultural
and economic development of the province. It was during the Hibari
period that Sind severed its relations with the caliphate; and it was
during this period that two separate states emerged in Sind: one had its
capital at Mansura and the other at Multan. In addition, several small
Hindu states had also sprung up. It was again during the Hibari rule
that the Fatimid Caliph Obidullah-aI-Mahdi sent the first Ismaili
missionary, Haishan, to Sind.
MISSIONARY WORK
Sind being the eastern-most province of the Umayyad, and then of the
Abassid Caliphates with loose control from the centre, its political as
well as religious life was highly perturbed. In the political field due
to internecine quarrels, Muslim governments in the area were divided
into two sections: The upper region had Multan as its capital and the
capital of the lower region was Mansura near Shahdadpur. Sind also
became an arena of religious acrimonies because of the large number of
Ismaili missionaries who visited this country and the herectics who took
refuge here. The first Ismaili missionary to visit Sind was Haisham who
came to Sind in 877 A.D. – 270 A.H. He was sent by the founder of the
Fatimid caliphate, Obaidullah-al-Mahdi. Among other prominent Ismaili
missionaries to visit Sind were Hazrat Abdullah (1067 A.D.), Pir
Sadruddin (1430 AD), his son Kabiruddin, his brother Tajuddin and Syed
Yusufuddin, all of whom gained considerable following in Pakistan. Pir
Sadruddin had his grand lodge in Sind and it was he who conferred on the
new converts the title of Khwaja (Khoja), meaning honourable. According
to Dr. Arnold a number of Ismaili missionaries were sent to Sind from
the famous “Alamut” fort which was the headquarter of Hasan Bin Sabbah
who lived in the late 11th and early 12th century A.D.28
Abdullah-al-Ashtar Alvi, a great grandson of Hazrat Ali was among those
who had religious differences with the Caliph, was considered a heretic
and took refuge here. Because of sheltering him, the Governor of Sind,
Omar bin Hafs was transferred to North Africa by the Caliph. Hazrat
Abdullah Ashtar’s tomb at Clifton on the sea-shore near Karachi is still
visited by devotees.
A large number of Sunni missionaries also visited Sind during the
Arab period. The Omayyed Caliph Hazrat Omar bin Abdul Aziz is said to
have sent a number of them who were successful in converting several
Sindhi landlords. The Abbasid Caliph Mahdi also sent some missionaries
who converted a number of Rajas and prominent Hindus up to Peshawar.
Mohammad Alfi who came with Mohammad Bin Qasim and was among the most
successful missionaries, later became adviser to the Raja of Kashmir and
settled there.
As already stated, during the major portion of Arab rule, Sind and
southern Punjab were rent by political as well as religious rivalries.
Since every development in the Middle East had its direct impact on this
region, the Fatimid-Abbasid political rivalry with its religious
manifestation in the Ismaili-Sunni controversy, found its full echo
here, particularly in the 10th century A.D. (early 4th century hijri).
Ismaili, or according to some, Carmathian rulers were installed in the
upper region whose capital was Multan. It is related that the Fatimid
Caliph Imam Abdul Aziz Billah had sent a misionary Jalam bin Shaiban
from Cairo to Multan with a sizeable army in 372 hijri (985 A.D.) to
establish Ismaili rule which he did, and himself became head of the
state. At this time the rulers of Makran and Mansura were also Ismailis.
The Sumra family of Sind which had accepted Ismaili Islam owed
allegience to the Fatimid Caliphs of Cairo, sent them presents and zakat
and read their name in Friday ‘Khutba’. After the fall of the Fatimids,
Sindhi Ismailis attached themselves to the Mustali branch of the
Ismailis who were functioning from Yemen. (Members of the ‘Mustali’
branch are called Bohris in the sub-continent). The history of this
period is so confused that it is difficult to state with any certainty
as to when and how long Ismaili and Carmathian rulers held sway at
Mansura and Multan. There were frequent changes accompanied by
enlargement or shrinkag of territories. Ferishta speaks of Shaikh Hamid
Lodhi as the first ruler of Multan converted to Carmathian faith. Haig
says that Multan was seized by Abdullah, the Carmathian, about 287 hijri
(900 A.D.). Ibn-e-Haukal visited in 367 hijri but does not mention the
Ismailis and says that the rulers of Multan and Mansura recognised the
authority of Baghdad. Al Maqdasi visited Multan in 375 hijri and wrote
that the people of Multan were Shias, presents were sent to the Fatimids
of Egypt and Ismailis were claiming an increasing number of converts.
Al Beruni writing about the 424 hijri says “the rise of the Carmathians
preceded our time by almost 100 years i.e., in 324 hijri.” Whatever the
fortunes of the rulers, there is some ground to believe that Ismaili
form of Shiaism continued to be dominant in Sind and southern Punjab for
a considerable time.
“Propaganda under the Fatimid ‘Dawat’ in the subcontinent is traced
back to the time of Fatimid Caliph al Mustansir. Ismailis had indeed
been sent to the subcontinent at a much earlier date. Their field of
labour was in Sind, in a district of Multan. Their chief dai was in
correspondence with Caliph Muizz (953) and the community had not only
increased in numbers, but it had attained power in Multan during his
Imamate. The community recognised the Fatimids as Imams but the
initiative in Sind may have been taken by the Carmathians. Later history
links Multan and Sind with the Nizarian Dawat”29
“Ivanow describes the Ismaili population in south Asia as the most
ancient and interesting. Sons of Mohammad Ibn Ismail had sought refuge
in Qandahar, then a part of Sind. Sind early became a dist. or Jazira,
of the Ismaili ‘dawat’. During the Imamats of Al Muizz (953) its chief
dai was in direct communication with the Imam.” 30
SIND’S PROGRESS UNDER ARABS
However, in spite of political chaos and religious confusion, Sind
made great progress in the literary and economic fields during this
period. Sindhi scholars and doctors made a mark not only in their own
country but in the entire Muslim world. Mathematicians and philosophers
from Sind visited Baghdad in large numbers and made outstanding
contribution to the promotion of learning among the Arabs. Several
physicians were called from Sind for the treatment of Caliphs among whom
were Ganga and Manka who treated Haroon-ur-Rashid. The latter was a
member of Bait-ul-Hikmat of Haroon-ur-Rashid. Another Sindhi doctor who
made a mark in the Muslim world was a newly converted Muslim, Saleh bin
Bhahla (Bhalla).
Among the notable Sindhi ulema were: Maulana Islami who hailed from
Debal, accepted Islam during Mohammad Bin Qasim’s days and was sent by
him as envoy to Raja Dahir for negotiations. Abu Maashar Sindhi was
Muslim world’s noted scholar of ’seerat and ‘fiqh’. He lived at Medina
for a number of years and later shifted to Baghdad where he died. He was
so much respected that on his death Caliph Mehdi led the funeral
prayers. His son Abu Abdul Malik was also an eminent scholar and had
settled down in Baghdad. Hafiz Abu Mohammad Khalaf bin Saalem who was a
‘hadees’ scholar had migrated from Sind to Iraq where he attained fame.
Abu Nasr Fateh Bin Abdulla Sindhi was known for his proficiency in
‘hadees,’ ‘fiqh’ and Ilm-e-Kalaam. He wrote ‘Tafseer’ in Sindhi and
rendered Islamic teachings in such beautiful and forceful Sindhi verse
that it gained immense popularity both among Hindus and Muslims. Another
‘aalim’ Ishaque Sindhi, was among the most revered muftis of the
Abbasid period. Imam Auzai of Sind was considered an authority on
religion in the Muslim world. Mohammad bin Ali Shwarib, the Qazi of
Mansura and his son Ali bin Mohammad bin Ali Shwarib were also renowned
scholars.
Among the Sindhis who earned eminence in the Muslim world as Arabic
poets during this period were Abul Ata Sindhi, Haroon bin Abdulla
Multani, Abu Mohammad Mansuri who hailed from Mansura, Mansoor Hindi,
Musa bin Yakub, Saqafi, Abu Zila Sindhi, Kashajam bin Sindhi bin Shahak
etc. Sindhi bin Sadqa was a ‘Katib’, a writer as well as a poet. Some of
them wrote in Sindhi as well as in Arabic. It is said that at the
request of a Sindhi Raja, Mahrook, who embraced Islam, the Quran was
translated into Sindhi during the reign of Abdulla bin Omar Hibari. Due
to the patronage extended by early Abbasid Caliphs and their Baramaka
Prime Ministers, a number of Sindhi Pandits and Veds went to Baghdad and
engaged themselves in scientific and literary pursuits. They translated
a number of Sanskrit books on mathematics, astronomy, astrology,
medicine, literature and ethics into Arabic. Prominent among them were
Bhalla, Manka, Bazeegar (Bajaikar), Falbar Ful (Kalap Rai Kal), Ibne
Dahan, Saleh bin Bhalla, Bakhar, Raja, Makka, Daher, Anko, Arikal, Andi,
Jabbhar, etc. Some of these Pandits taught the Arabs, numerals.31In about 780 A.D. – 154 A.H. when a deputation of Sindhi Pandits
visited Baghdad, they carried with them a Sanskrit work known as
‘Siddhanat’ which, after translation in Arabic, became known as
AI-Sindh-Hind.
Sindhi accountants were also popular in the Arab world. According to
Jahez (d. 874 A.D. – 255 A.H.) all the ‘Sarrafs’ (money-changers) in
Iraq were Sindhi treasurers. They were proficient in accounting and
exchange business and were also honest and loyal servants.
The Arab rulers of Sind-Multan were extremely liberal, spoke Sindhi
and treated their subjects well. They never encroached upon the
religious liberties of the Hindus and Buddhists and appointed them to
positions of responsibility. Mohammad Bin Qasim had appointed Sisakar,
the Prime Minister of Raja Dahir, his own Prime Minister, and Kiska,
another Hindu, his Revenue Minister. The entire history of Sind under
the Arabs is replete with instances of Hindus holding positions of great
responsibility and honour. Three per cent of the country’s revenues
were given to Brahmins as stipends. When some of the district
administrators informed the Government that they were experiencing
shortage of cows and bulls which were needed for agricuiture and
transport, Government prohibited cow slaughter.
In the economic field also Sind made considerable progress.
Agriculture received great impetus with foodgrains being exported tothe
Middle East. A number of new varieties of fruits were cultivated among
which the bananas of Sind were extremely popular in the neighboring
countries. Camphor, neel, banana, coconut, dates, sugarcane, lemons,
mangoes, almonds, nuts, wheat and rice are mentioned by almost all
visitors as grown in plenty in Sind. Bishari Maqdasi writes that there
were innumerable gardens in Sind and the trees were tall and luxuriant.
The whole city of Mansura was covered with almond and nut trees.
The cities established by the Arabs “flourished as great centres of
trade and learning. A busy trade grew up and the merchants of different
nationalities carried Indian goods through Sind to Turkistan and
Khurasan imported horses into Sind.”32 Debal, Nairun Kot, Sehwan,
Khuzdar, Aror, Multan and Mansura were flourishing commercial centres.
Arabs had more trade with this country than with Gujrat, Malabar and
Bengal. A large proportion of merchandise was transported from the
Punjab by rivers. 700-800 maunds of goods were sewn in jute cloth, put
in leather bags oiled from outside to prevent water penetrating and put
in the rivers. 33 “On account of their favourable geographical position the ports of
Sind played a vital role, even before the Arab invasion, in the
commercial intercourse between the countries to the west (Iran, South
Arabia, Ethiopia) and to the east of the Indus delta, as well as in the
export of commodities manufactured in Sind itself. This role gained
momentum after Islam had reached Sind. The author of Hudud al’Alam
mentions that there were plenty of merchants in Sind, stressing that
many a citizen of the coastal areas were engaged in sea trade. The
cities of Daibul and Mansura were major trade centres of Lower Sind at
the turn of the first and second millennia. In the first centuries of
the second millennium, Thatta came in the fore as another major economic
and political centre of the country: in the opinion of some scholars,
the city in its prime had a population of 280,000.”34 Leather and leather goods industry also made great progress during
this period. The coloured and soft leather of Sind was known all over
the world markets as Al-Sindhi. According to ‘Muruj-uz-Zahab’, the shoes
of Mansura were very popular in Iran and the Arab world. Imam Hanbal
relates that a large number of shoes were imported from Mansura into
Baghdad where they were in great demand among the royal family and the
gentry. But, he remarks, they were very showy.
Arabs also took keen interest in animal husbandry. They improved
several breeds of camels, horses, cows, bulls and buffaloes. Sindhi
buffaloes were so popular that Arabs used to carry them to their home
towns when returning from Sind.
Building of cities and construction of roads and houses was a hobby
with the Arabs. They built several new cities such as Mahfooza (in 732
A.D), Mansura (737 A.D.), Baiza (835 A.D.), Jundrore near Multan (in
854 AD) and several others. They also improved and expanded the existing
cities by constructing satellite towns. A bridge called
“Sukkar-al-Maid” was built over the Indus near Sukkur.
A number of Arab tribes of Quraish, Kalb, Tameem, Saqeef, Harris,
Ael-e-Utba, Aal-e-Jareema and Asad, and several prominent families of
Yemen and Hejaz had settled in Sind. Masudi (915 A.D. – 302 A.H.) writes
that he met many descendants of Hazrat Ali in Mansura who were in the
line of Omar bin Ali and Mohammad Bin Ali. He also mentions that there
was fertility and opulence here and people were healthy. Some
authorities have expressed the view that the wife of Hazrat Imam
Hussain, who other of Hazrat Imam Zainul Abdin from whom the line of
Hussaini Syeds is traced, was not a Perstan as is generally believed,
but a Sindhi lady of noble family.”35 Bishari writes that the people of Multan were prosperous, they did
not drink wine and their women did not use cosmetics. Both Arabic and
Sindhi were spoken. Regarding Mansura he states that the people were
very well-read, courteous and religious. The city had a large number of
scholars and the general standard of morals and intelligence was high.
Mansura remained the capital of Sind from 737 A.D. – 120 A.H to 1026
A.D. – 416 A.H. for about 300 years till its conquest by Mahmud
Ghaznavi. In late 3rd century Hijri when Multan became the capital of
the northern kingdom, Mansura remained the capital of only the south i
i.e., modern Sind. It survived till the Tughlaq period in the 14th
century A.D. when it disappeared due to change in the course of river
Indus.
As during the time of Darius when Sind constituted the 20th Satrapy
of the Achaemenian Empire and considered an extremely rich province, so
also during the Arab rule Sind was regarded a prosperous part of the
Caliphate and paid a million dirham per annum as revenue to the
Government at Baghdad.
——- TO BE CONTINUED (Ghaznavid period in Sind, Naaseruddin Qubacha,
The Sumras and Sammas, The Arghans and the Turkhans, The Kalhoras and
the Talpurs)
REFERENCES:
1. The Wonder that was India, By A.L. Bhasham
2. The peoples of Pakistan, By Yu. V. Gankovsky
3. Arab-o-Hind ke Talluqat, By Sulaiman Nadvi.
4. The Gazetteer of Pakistan: The Province of Sind, edited by T.H. Sorly
5. Gazetteer of the Province of Sind, compiled by E.H. Aitkin
6. Ancient Trade in Pakistan, By Sir Mortimer Wheeler, Pakistan Quarterly, Vol VII #1957
7. Sindhj Culture, By U.T. Thakkur.
8. Tareekh-Sind, By Manlana Syed Abu Zafar Nadvi.
9. An Advanced History of India, Part II, By R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Roychandra and Kalikinkar Ditta
10. The Land of five rivers and Sind, By David Ross
11. Arab~o-Hind ke Tallukat, By Suiaiman Nadvi;
12. Tareekh-e-Sind, Part I, By Ijaaul Haq Quddusi.
13. Dr. Mohammad Ishaque in Journal of Pakistan Historical Society Vol 3 Part1
14. A Study of History, Vol VII, By Arnold Toynbee.
15. Ibid.
16. Sind: A General Introduction, By M.T. Lambrick.
17. A greater portion of the area now called Baluchistan was then known
as Makran. The word Baluchistan came into vogue much later.
18. Journal of Pakistan, Historical Society, Vol.111, Part 1
19. Tauzeehat-e-Tareekh-e-Masoomi.
20. Muslim Community of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, by Dr. I.H Qureshi
21. Tareekh-e-Sind, Part 1, by Aijazul Haq Quddusi
22. The Making of India, By Dr. Abdulla Yusuf Ali.
23. Jaunat-us-Sind, By Maulai Shaidai.
24. Imperial Gazetteer of India.
25. Ibid.
26. Indian Muslims, By Prof. M. Mujeeb.
27. Tareekh-e-Sind, Part 1, By Aijazul Haq Quddusi.
28. The preaching of Islam by Sir Thomas Arnold
29. Shias of India, By John Norman Hollister.
30. Ibid.
31. Arab-o-Hind ke Tallukat, By Syed Sulaiman Nadvi
32. Sindhi Culture, By U.T. Thakut.
33. Tareekh-e-Sind, By Maulana Abu Zafar Nadvi.
34. The Peoples of Pakistan, By. Yu. V. Gankovsky.
35. Arab-o-Hind ke Tallukat, By Syed Sulairnan Nadvi.
